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As I said - look at the effect of pressure and temperature. A 10C temperature rise will give around 2% error. You could introduce a reference to remove the effect of the variation in the speed of sound, such as a deliberate reflection at a known distance. Or use something more stable such as the speed of light, but be careful as that isn't constant either but should be good enough for your purpose.
laser triangulation is good, but the electronic for this maybe quite intricate and specialised. Unless you want to mass produce this product, this may not be a good option.
You could consider buying an industrial sensor, but these may be expensive.
Ultrasonics can - in principle - achieve the intended resolution when using a respective high frequency (MHz range). The involved electronics isn't simple in this case. But I agree with Keith, that it most likely won't work for a real world problem. In any case, we have to look at the exact measurement setup and enviromental conditions. Saying just 30 cm/0.1 mm isn't enough. It's also a big difference, if you only want to demonstrate the measurement principle, e.g. for an academic project, or design a ruggedized industrial measurement system. For the latter, you would surely go for optical methods, if actually needing a contactless sensor.
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