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Screw is very similar to turbine. The turbine uses blades; the screw compressor uses a screw; both require a close fitting jacket. Both are typically used commercially for high volume and pressure. High volume sand blasters and paint sprayers are common applications . A similar construction with an impeller (radial blades) is used in exhaust systems and is usually high volume low pressure. Another variation uses a "squirrel" cage impeller. Roof ventilators, vacuum cleaners, and bathroom fans are examples of low pressure, high-volume types that use a squirrel cage or radial impeller.
Piston are sort of a mid-range (in my opinion). They may have more than one piston and may work in stages. A 2-stage piston pump will get pressures in the 200 psi range or more, but for practical reasons (tank limitations) are limited to 175 psi or lower. Piston pumps come in oiled and oil-less versions. In the USA, they are the most common for home and light commercial uses.
The vane pump is like a piston pump, except the piston rotates eccentrically in a cylinder sealed with vane. Refrigerator pumps are often that type as are vacuum pumps.
Diaphram pumps use a pulsating diaphram. They are usually low-volume, low pressure pumps. An example is an aquarium pump.
Major considerations ( beside cost) in choosing an air compressor are pressure, volume, and contamination. Piston and vane pumps usually have the greatest problem with contamination from the oil used as a lubricant.
John
Edit: I left out peristaltic pumps, which are usually used for for liquids, but can be used for low pressure, low flow gases. A manual blood-pressure cuff might be considered a type of peristaltic pump.
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